1. For the CFE Treaty, see "Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE)," Appendix A. For an account of the treaty negotiations and ratifications, see Jane M.O. Sharp, "Conventional Arms Control in Europe," in SIPRI Yearbook 1990, World Armaments and Disarmament (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 459-505; P. Terrence Hopmann, "From MBFR to CFE, Negotiating Conventional Arms Control in Europe," in Richard Dean Burns, ed., Encyclopedia of Arms Control and Disarmament, Vol. II (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1993), pp. 967-989; and Jane M.O. Sharp, "Conventional Arms Control in Europe," in SIPRI Yearbook 1991, World Armaments and Disarmament (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 407-451.
2. For the European context, especially Germany, see Timothy Garton Ash, In Europe's Name: Germany and the Divided Continent (New York: Random House, 1993) and Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995). For the American view, consult Michael R. Beschloss and Strobe Talbott, At the Highest Levels: The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1993). For the state of the Soviet Union, see John B. Dunlop, The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993).
3. These numbers reflect the extraordinary creation of 17 new nations on the European continent between 1990 and 1992. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, eight new signatory nations entered the CFE Treaty: Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Kazakstan.
4. Ash, In Europe's Name, pp. 357-410; and Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed.
5. For the text and a brief overview of the Stockholm Agreement of 1986, see United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, Arms Control and Disarmament Agreements (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990), pp. 319-335. For the INF Treaty, see Joseph P. Harahan, On-Site Inspections Under the INF Treaty (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993) and George L. Rueckert, Global Double Zero: The INF Treaty From Its Origins to Implementation (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993). For other treaties, see SIPRI Yearbooks, World Armaments and Disarmament, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1995 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991-1995).
6. For a history of the agency's origins and the INF Treaty implementation, see Harahan, On-Site Inspections Under the INF Treaty. For a report-length version, read David M. Willford, "A Brief History of the On-Site Inspection Agency," OSIA Reference Report No. 1 (Washington, D.C.: On-Site Inspection Agency, 1996).
7. James Macintosh, "Confidence-Building Measures in Europe, 1975 to the Present," in Richard D. Burns, ed., Encyclopedia of Arms Control and Disarmament, Vol. II, pp. 929-945; Rolf Berg and Adam-Daniel Rotfeld, Building Security in Europe: Confidence-Building Measures and the CSCE (New York: Institute for East-West Security Studies, 1986).
8. Hopmann, "From MBFR to CFE," pp. 978-979; Jonathan Dean, Watershed in Europe: Dismantling the East-West Military Confrontation (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1987).
9. Macintosh, "Confidence-Building Measures in Europe" pp. 933-935; John Borawski, From the Atlantic to the Urals: Negotiating Arms Control at the Stockholm Conference (Washington, D.C.: Pergamon-Brassey International Defense Publishers, 1988), pp. 8-11.
10. United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, Arms Control and Disarmament Agreements, pp. 319-335. For background, see Borawski, From the Atlantic to the Urals, pp. 102-115.
11. Jonathan Dean, Meeting Gorbachev's Challenge: How to Build Down the NATO-Warsaw Pact Confrontation (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989); Borawski, From the Atlantic to the Urals, pp. 88-89. For a discussion of the Soviet Union's changing foreign relations and military strategy toward Western Europe, consult Eduard Shevardnadze, The Future Belongs to Freedom (New York: The Free Press, 1991); and Don Oberdorfer, The Turn: From the Cold War to a New Era-The United States and the Soviet Union, 1983-1990 (New York: Poseidon Press, 1991).
12. Hopmann, "From MBFR to CFE," pp. 977-978; Ivo H. Daalder, The CFE Treaty: An Overview and an Assessment (Washington, D.C.: The Johns Hopkins Foreign Policy Institute, 1991).
13. Mandate for Negotiation on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, January 14, 1989.
14. Hopmann, "From MBFR to CFE," pp. 978-983.
15. David Remnick, Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire (New York: Random House, 1993), pp. 240-243; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed.
16. Declaration by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on the Personnel Strength of the German Armed Forces, Annex to CFE Treaty, November 19, 1990.
17. Sergei A. Karagonov, "Toward a New Security System in Europe," in Vilho Harle and Jyrki Iivonen, eds., Gorbachev and Europe (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990), pp. 40-50.
18. "Assembly Supports Pact Withdrawal," Budapest Domestic Service, June 26, 1990, in Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS)-Eastern Europe, June 27, 1990.
19. "Hungarian, USSR Delegates at CFE Talks," Die Presse (Vienna), August 10, 1990, in FBIS-Western Europe, August 14, 1990; "Pact Discusses Structural Changes, Arms Ceilings," Hopodarske Noviny (Prague), October 2, 1990, in FBIS-Eastern Europe, October 9, 1990.
20. Interview with Ambassador Lynn Hansen, U.S. Government CFE
Treaty Negotiator, by Joseph P. Harahan, Historian, OSIA,
Ramstein Air Base, Germany, December 14, 1993. See also Beschloss
and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, pp. 269-270,
288-290; David Hoffman, "U.S., Soviets to Press Arms
Talks," Washington Post, September 27, 1990, pp.
A31-32; and Alan Riding, "U.S.-Soviet Differences Are Said
to Threaten Arms-Cut Pact," New York Times,
November 19, 1990, p. A6.
21. Craig R. Whitney, "The Legacy of Helsinki," New York Times, November 19, 1990, pp. A1, A6; "The Peace of Paris," The Times (London), November 19, 1990; Alan Riding, "Designing the New Europe: Plenty to Argue About," New York Times, November 19, 1990, p. A6; Arms Control Reporter 1990, pp. 407.B.409-412; "The Paris Conference: The Thrill of Europe's Rebirth," The Economist, November 24, 1990, pp. 49-53.
22. For a text of the agreement, see "The Charter of Paris for a New Europe," Paris, France, November 21, 1990, in SIPRI Yearbook 1991, pp. 603-610. For the contemporary political context in Paris, see Alan Riding, "The Question That Lingers on Europe: How Will the Goals Be Achieved?" New York Times, November 22, 1990, p. A17.
23. Arms Control Reporter 1990, pp. 402.B.273-275.
24. For the text, see U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Dispatch Supplement: Vienna Document 1990, Vol. 2, Supplement 2, May 1991. For the European background, see Sharp, "Conventional Arms Control in Europe," pp. 451-456.
25. R.W. Apple, Jr., "East and West Sign Pact to Shed Arms in Europe," New York Times, November 20, 1990, pp. A1, A14; Riding, "Designing the New Europe," New York Times, November 19, 1990, p. A6.
26. Riding, "Designing the New Europe," New York Times, November 19, 1990, p. A6.
27. Ibid.
28. For the CFE Treaty text, protocols, and declarations, see "Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE)," this book, Appendix A.
29. Lynn M. Hansen, "Towards an Agreement on Reducing
Conventional Forces in Europe," Disarmament, Vol.
13, No. 3, 1990, pp. 61-76; Sharp, "Conventional Arms
Control in Europe" (1990), pp. 478-501; R. Jeffery Smith,
"U.S. Offers Compromise on Military Planes in Europe," Washington
Post, Janurary 31, 1990, p. A16.
30. Arms Control Reporter 1990, pp. 407.B.305-307,
336-337, 340-341, 346-347, 357-360, 380.
31. Thomas L. Friedman, "Pact on European Armies May Skip Troop Limits to Speed Accord," New York Times, September 12, 1990, p. A14; Arms Control Reporter 1990, pp. 407.B.390-391, 393-396; Hoffman, "U.S., Soviets to Press Arms Talks," Washington Post, September 27, 1990, pp. A31-32; Thomas Friedman, "U.S.-Soviet Accord on Europe Armies is Reported Near," New York Times, October 4, 1990, pp. A1, A6; "Kondrashov Assesses Atmosphere for Vienna Talks," TASS (Moscow), October 1, 1990, in FBIS-Soviet Union, October 1, 1990; David White, "Political Fixers Confident of Seeing CFE Deal," Financial Times (London), September 27, 1990.
32. See "Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE)," this book, Appendix A.
33. Hopmann, "From MBFR to CFE," p. 981; Arms Control Reporter 1990, p. 407.B.412.
34. For the specific parts of the treaty, see "Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE)," Appendix A.
35. Sharp, "Conventional Arms Control in Europe" (1991), p. 426.
36. Interview with Mary Margaret Evans, Deputy Director, Conventional Arms Control and Compliance, Office of the Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, by Joseph P. Harahan, Historian, OSIA, Washington, D.C., December 8, 1993, and February 21, 1996; and Interview, Hansen.
37. Interview, Hansen.
38. Interview, Evans, February 21, 1996.